The evolution of female underwear

The evolution of female underwear

QDC1103:Essay
 

The Evolution of female underwear essay and tasks
 

Aneesah Loonat
 

Step 1

Identify possible sources of information

 

Step 2

Read through information and highlight areas concerned

 

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Write out information in your own words and reference accordingly

 

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Write out your first draft and proof read it

 

Step 5

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Underwear is one of the main necessities in our daily lives. Underwear was seen as an under garment in the days of queen Elizabeth but now days in the 21st century underwear is seen as a form of status, wealth and taste. The fancier the taste the more expensive and elaborate the lingerie. The more expensive the lingerie the less fabric or coverage-(how ironic)

Lingerie throughout history has brought woman to want to flatten, conform, mould, plump, squeeze and push out. The purpose of lingerie is to alter the woman’s shape to meet hygiene and modesty needs- although modesty is not so popular in our day and age.

The earliest form of underwear, specific to woman, came from ancient Egypt around 3000 BC women wore narrow tunics as undergarments while slaves and servants wore only simple loin cloths or went naked. This reiterates the wealth and status part of lingerie. Europe adopted and transformed the Egyptian fashion thus bringing us to ancient Greece. Women in classical Greece would wear a band of cloth to support their breasts this did not contain any hemming or sewing and eventually became two separate pieces of clothing which were called the peplos and the chiton. Both garments were ankle long but the peplos was open on one side while the chiton was open on both, this gave the public a good view of the woman she walked, she was exposed. Apodesmos was the name of what we call the modern day bra; these pieces of clothing were not meant for fashion but were meant for function and practicality.

In the Roman era woman generally had larger breasts which was looked down upon because men found it unattractive. This then introduced what is called “cotte” this was used to minimize the size of their busts. In the roman era woman wore a chemise to protect the top layer of clothing from body oils and to provide warmth. They wore these under their petticoats. Europe preferred fitted clothing that went with the shape of the body. Women did not wear underwear during this era, only men wore trousers. Trousers were considered a symbol of male power and women who wore them were wives who wanted to overthrow authority with their husbands. My guess this is where the saying “wears the pants in the relationship” is born.

The first fashionable and functional lingerie was brought about during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). The Du Dou is similar to the shape of a bib with straps that tie around the neck and the back; similar to the undergarments in the Roman era it was also to minimize the size of the bust. This garment is still worn in today’s time but not as an undergarment but rather as an outer garment.

In the renaissance, the time where they were reforming fashion, is where the farthingale was born, this consisted of hoops that are worn under the skirt to support them into desired shapes. The Spanish farthingale was the original and the French followed in the late 1570s. This is when the Elizabethans came up with the idea of the “bum roll”, the used to wear something around their waist and under their skirt to accentuate the waist and the hips appear smaller. We now reach the “Basquine”, this is part of the farthingale, and it is a tightly fitted lace under the bodice of heavy material that is attached to the farthingale.

This soon changed in the middle ages in the late 16thcentury as the corset that minimized the waistline was introduced. The times of having big breasts were now embraced. Arriving in the earliest form 4000 years back, the corset, this was designed for more aesthetic purposes rather than practical use. The corset did not fit the user it rather reshaped the user to the fetish of the time. The corset is the most controversial garment in history because of the discussions on whether it is a symbol of status or is it for erotic appeal and whether it successfully oppressed and victimized women to conform. Over the course of time the materials used to make corsets would vary from animal bones, wood to metal rods, hooks, clips, straps and even pulleys. Woman even began to insert whalebone into the Busk (a slot down the centre front of the corset) of the cloth bodies. The Busk was also a love token which was sometimes presented to a suitor when he was interested in a woman.

The corset reached the height of popularity during the Victorian era where both men and woman would wear the corset but soon diminished in the 20th century as new support garments were introduced. This proves that fashions shifts between masculine and feminine no matter what.

During the French revolution there was a revolt against underwear. The 1700s was where women began to shun petticoats, corsets and camisoles, all symbols of French aristocracy were shunned upon as well. Women refused to wear conforming underwear, breasts became the main focus and women started to push their breasts up and out and this is where panties were introduced and were designed by Catherine de Medici.

The Victorian era (1800) introduced the pioneers of lingerie. This era marked the end of the Napoleonic wars and corseted fashion became popular again. Victoria’s Secret adopted their name from this era.

During 1829 – 1876, the first steel Busk fastening was created which allowed woman to put on and take off the corset without a hassle. The corset became elasticised which allowed more comfort. Victorian England introduced silk underwear, laced and trimmed embroideries as well as frilled pantaloons. Hoop skirts were supported by crinolines (steel structure with a corset and petticoats). Garters were now introduced to anchor the corset so it could not ride up.

1890 was when corsets were gradually been done away with and then introduced the brassiere. It was not till 1914 that the brassiere was introduced which was designed by Mary Phelps Jacobs she invented this by tying two handkerchiefs together with ribbons. Instead of pushing the breasts together the “bra” separated each breast and it was backless unlike the corset. In the 1920s the individual cup sizes followed. The brassier was pronounced more comfortable to the woman of the world than the corset. Woman in the early 1900s became involved in sports and vigorous dancing which lead them to abandon the corset and embrace the brassiere as it was more practical. At this point in history women were going towards a more streamline and almost boyish figure. World War I and the women activists at the time demanded the demise of the corset. Women started to turn to the girdle and restrictive garments that had suspender clips attached to hold up stockings this lead to the flapper look of the 1920s.

During 1923-1945, maternity wear was outsold by plus size lingerie designed by Lane Bryant for the first time by bringing in $5 million in revenue. The “bra” started to now accentuate the breasts instead of flattening them. Warner Brothers became the labellers of the cup sizes; A, B, C and D these are the sizes we use today. During the World War II there was a short supply of the materials that were used to make undergarments so this is when they started using synthetic materials such as Lycra, Rayon and Lastex. In this time period Marilyn Monroe became famous for a voluptuous and modelled for lingerie advertisements which were painted by hand in this era.

In 1947 the hourglass silhouette was revolutionized and also known as the “wasp waist” which brought the corset and girdles back into fashion to achieve this look. The push up bra was invented and designed by Frederick Mellinger. The push up bra had brought back what the corset had which was aesthetic edge and sex appeal.

The golden age for lingerie was during the 1950-1970, the 1950s had now fully embraced the hourglass figure and the bra had taken new shapes and solidified itself for every woman due to the film industry. “Sweater girls” which were made famous through stars such as Lana Turner because of the cone shaped bras, small waits and full hips. Bettie Page, ofcourse, got her name through wearing risqué lingerie in the 1940s. Joan Collins was one of the first to model the seamed stockings and curve hugging “Basques”. The freedom of not wanting to conform and have the freedom to wear what you like was during the 1960s, women’s liberation was rife at this time.

With the women’s liberation being rife a new style emerged where woman became more girly and youthful which intern introduced the baby doll night dresses and frilly knickers. In 1966 the modern bra shapes became recognizable and underwear became more playful and patterns developed. Women now had the freedom of choice.

The 1970s held more sophistication and class. Underwear materials changed, fabrics became more luxurious which introduced lace and silk.

In the 1980s technology met the brassiere. Cleavage hit the decade with a bang which introduced the creation of Wonderbra which allowed women who were not as blessed as others to have a cleavage could now afford to have one. The Wonderbra introduced the push and plunge effect which became a desirable effect for men. Padded and underwire bras became popular top selling items along with Victoria’s Secret and Fredrick’s of Hollywood all big lingerie lines. Padded, gel-filled and air-filled, staples and backless lingerie became the contemporary lingerie of the time. This decade also introduced the infamous body suit worn by Cher. Then panties took a new form and the thong as well as the G-String was introduced. Women at this stage of history have more choices available to them than ever before.

1990 introduced the newest supermodel who modelled for Calvin Klein, Kate Moss. Madonna was also one of the statement stars of this time when she wore her pointy bras from Jean Paul Gautier as outer wear on her tours. 1994 held the birth of the most iconic outdoor advert that caused several motorists to crash their cars. The billboard advert ‘Hello Boys’ who starred supermodel Eva Herizgova, she posed for Wonderbra.

From 2000 onwards underwear was the main attraction and proved that sex always sells. 2001 brought sexy back when Agent Provocateur was voted the sexiest of all time which featured Kylie Minogue and soon after Kate Moss became the face of Agent Provocateur. Dita Von Teese she is the face of 2008 by bringing vintage lingerie back into the fashion limelight. Dita brought back corsets, stockings and suspenders. Dita became the face of modern vintage pin-up.

Victoria’s Secret a name we are all aware of today is the biggest selling American brand and is internationally recognized. Their yearly catwalk shows are highly waited upon and are legendary.

Now that we have an understanding as to where our not so private essentials come from and know that they were once just a piece of cloth or had animal bone pushed into it at one stage and that it was a really painful affair to conform to society, we can be grateful for our fitting sexy underwear. Lingerie has made many statements over the years and each time it reflected the social status to a symbol of sex appeal. Woman were taught to conform and then fought to steer away from conformity so I think it is safe to say that underwear matters.


Fashion in the sixties

Fashion in the sixties

Sylvia Ayton, a fashion graduate of the sixties once said “Suddenly it was the swinging sixties; it was the most exciting, wonderful and magical time. To be a designer then was fab. We kept our bras but we abandoned our girdles, pulling on pantyhose changed our lives even more than the pill.” The sixties was a decade of far reaching change and London was the centre of it. Thanks to a convergence of music, film, fashion and social change such as the civil rights movement, sexual liberation and feminism, the sixties became the decade for the young; it was the time of the Youthquake. Poster girls of the youthquake such as Jean Shrimpton, Twiggy and Penelope Tree were often on the cover of fashion magazines such as Vogue. For fashion designers it was a time of great change, they were able for the first time to break many fashion traditions, mirroring the social movements of the time. Couturiers like Couregges and Yves Saint Laurent were among the few that embraced the new age of design and started creating clothing aimed at the youth rather than at their parents. They were also among the first that experimented with materials such as PVC and shortening hemlines.

In 1961 the LBD or little black dress which had become a genre in its own right was reborn by Hubert de Givenchy when his design featured in the film Breakfast in Tiffany’s. Givenchy designed the dress knowing the wearer well; he made the style fresher and younger and in doing so created an iconic fashion moment. Audrey Hepburn’s elfin looks and slight figure contrasted sharply with the smouldering sexuality of Anita Ekburg in her black dress in La Dolce Vita. Givenchy was anticipating a style to come. As was the designer Andre Couregges, with a background in architecture one of his first innovations in the Sixties was the white LBD, which heralded the start of a new age of space awareness. Couregges, along with designer Paco Rabanne and Cardin were some of the first designers to explore ‘space age’ looks and the use of different technologies and materials. In ’64 and as a direct influence of space travel the Parisian couturier Couregges launches his ‘space-age look’ which was both visionary and youthful in cut and appearance. The designer clothed his models; head to toe in shimmering white synthetics, - the colour, according to Couregges embodied the reflection of white - adding the colour silver which evoked the moons reflection. In addition to these colours he used slivers of Rhodid plastic plating, silver coloured sequins and vinyl discs, in the spring of ’65 Couregges’ ‘moon girls’ stepped onto the catwalk for the first time. The designer combined short slightly flared dresses with snow white wool coats, angular collars, futuristic glasses, and open toes white boots. This collection was made to be wearable and comfortable for young women; he also designed flat white boots - which are now known universally as ‘go-go’ boots - to ensure ease of movement. Paco Rabanne also used his training in architecture to push fashion technology further, the designer created sculptural dresses made from plastic discs and metal chains which often entailed using pliers rather than sewing needles during the construction. This radical experimentation was an increasingly widespread feature of elite fashion in the Sixties.

Diana Vreeland was an important figure in the Sixties; she was open to everything that was new, different and wild, thus she was an avid supporter of Couregges ‘Space Age ‘movement. She became the editor of American Vogue in 1962 and was the ‘Original High Priestess of Fashion’. Many influential designers and editors to this day describe her as the biggest inspiration for their careers. Her words were powerful and influential; she christened new trends and the people who made them with catchy headlines and metaphors. Her words such as ‘beautiful people’ and Youth quake’ sums up the creative, chic and rich vibrancy of the Sixties decade. Her arrival in ’62 had been conveniently timed, with her infinite energy and flair for the extraordinary; she not only captured the essence of the time but shaped them - putting unconventional beauties like Twiggy and Cher on the front cover, and featuring the Beatles and Mick Jagger on inside spreads, she turned Vogue into a magazine that no longer catered for just society women. Vreeland also changed the face of modern beauty, Jean Shrimpton and Penelope Tree were Vreeland girls and for the first time, models were stars and stars like Audrey Hepburn were models.

One of Vreeland girls, Jean Shrimpton was the first high-fashion model to also be a popular pin-up, her freewheeling style made it possible for a whole world of girls her age to connect with the elegant and expensive clothes she modelled. A graduate of the Lucie Clayton College, she was first spotted by David Bailey. As a couple the pair became emblems of London in the early Sixties. Bailey said ‘it’s almost impossible to take a bad picture of her and that even in her passport she looked a great beauty’. Shrimpton was a household name by the time she was twenty five, she is also credited with changing the course of popular fashion. The miniskirt may have been born on the catwalk but Shrimpton’s appearance in a mini dress at the Melbourne Cup in Australia ensured that every woman wanted one. Shrimpton was a totem for British fashion. British Vogue said of the Sixties and Shrimpton that “the world suddenly wanted to copy the way [Britain] looks. In New York it’s the ‘London Look’ and in Paris it’s ‘le style anglais”.

One of the most famous faces of the Sixties was Lesley Hornby Aka Twiggy. As a teenage model she weighed just six and a half stone, but her body matched Diana Vreeland’s description of the perfect contemporary silhouette ‘the smallest calves; the straightest legs; tiny, narrow, supple feet; beautiful wrists and throat’. Her career started as a happy accident, at 5”6 Twiggy had been told she was too short to become a model but after Leonard of Mayfair, protégé of Vidal Sassoon cut her long hair into a pixie crop for a promotional shoot, her career suddenly rocketed. This transformation twinned with the models own style of makeup which consisted of three pairs of eyelashes, painted dolly lashes on her lower lids and nude lips earned her the title of ‘The Face of 66’. Where Jean Shrimpton embodied the naturalistic side of the Sixties, Twiggy came to represent the Youth quake generation.

Across the water in America there was another Sixties icon, Penelope Tree. 1968 was the ‘Tree’s’ year, and she changed the notion of beauty. Tree not only challenged the conventions of beauty but also her illustrious lineage. Similarly to Twiggy, the Tree was created her own image, often shaving her eyebrows and attaching false lashes on the bottom rims of her eyes, she didn’t fit an ideal. In 2008 she said, “I felt I was an alien so I didn’t see anything wrong with looking like one,” Tree was also part of what a journalist in 1967 called modeling’s new “Personality Cult,” which valued qualities other than prettiness. Other iconic models such as Veruschka, who portrayed herself as an artistic bohemian and the exotic Donyale Luna, the first black model to be internationally successful were part of this ‘cult’. The Sixties was a turbulent decade for the African American community, civil rights activists used disobedience and non violent protest to bring about change. The federal government in America were able to make legislative headway with initiatives such as the ‘Voting Rights Act of 1965’ and the ‘Civil Rights Act of 1968). It was also a time where many leaders from the African American community rose to prominence including Martin Luther King Jr, Rosa Parks and Malcolm X. They risked and sometime lost their lives in the name of freedom and equality. Donyale Luna’s success as a model heralded a change in fashions attitude to African Americans. The Sunday Times Magazine hailed her as the’completely New Image of the Negro woman. Fashion finds itself in an instrumental position for changing history’. Naomi Sims was another black model who paved the way for many, after countless rejections from agencies, during the 60s her persistence led to major runway and editorial success. In 68 she appeared on the front cover of ‘Ladies’ Home Journal and had a strong presence in the fashion world. The designer Halston told The New York Times that Naomi was “the great ambassador for all black people. She broke down all social barriers.”

One designer in particular was a pioneer for coloured models, Yves Saint Laurent; he was the first ever haute couture designer to use coloured models in his runway shows. Saint Laurent’s reputation was built on his supreme tailoring; he was the first to feminise the tuxedo, with ‘Le Smoking’ in 1966. The designer believed that the trouser suit belied a sensuous femininity; paired with stilettos and a fedora the trim men’s tailoring only highlighted a woman’s figure. The timing of this new design was perfect: It appealed to the desires of the young woman who was just gaining access to birth control, political power, and an executive career. Saint Laurent power-dressing by a decade, the suit became a symbol of success for career women throughout the world. Pierre Berge, friend and business partner of Saint Laurent once said that whilst ‘Chanel gave women freedom, Yves Saint Laurent gave them power’. He was also renowned along with Couregges for pioneering prêt-a-porter. In 1966 Yves alongside his partner Pierre Berges turned away from the couture workshops and towards the accessibility of prêt-a-porter and in ’67 they opened a boutique called Rive Gauche in Paris. The Boutique sold Saint Laurent’s ready to wear collections and accoutrements like perfume, accessories and cosmetics. Also in ’66 after a brief hiatus due to the pirating of his design Couregges reopened his design house having created a tiered fashion system with three ranges, priced and manufactured on a sliding scale; Couture Future, Prototype and Hyperbole. This system was intended as a mass-marketed prêt-a-porter, with the integration of ready-to-wear into the fashion system and the cultural changes in the second half of the 20th century, this model was adopted by couture houses attempting to survive.

Mary Quant was another designer who shaped the way people dressed in the sixties, in 1964 she was responsible for taking the London Look to America and was renowned for being the British designer that made miniskirts the icon of the 1960s. Quant’s miniskirts were a far cry away from the architectural mini lengths of Couregges in Paris, she used easy jersey shapes in vibrant colours moving away from the fifties pastels. Quant also played with the proportions of classic fashion garments; scaling up cardigans and making t-shirts into dresses, she was also the first designer to dismantle the barriers between day and evening wear. Quant once said that “clothes should adapt themselves to the moment. Girls want clothes they can put on first thing and still feel good in at midnight.” (Boutique, A 60s Cultural Phenomenon, Marine Fogg). Not only was Mary Quant a pivotal influence to all female designers as an entrepreneur and an essential contributor to the youthquake movement she was an icon. She wore her own designs and epitomised the ‘dolly bird’ image of the young sixties girl and modelled the archetypal 1960s Vidal Sassoon bowl haircut that quickly became synonymous with her clothing.

Conclusion

http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Penelope_Tree

http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Jean_Shrimpton

http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Twiggy

http://www.cocoandcreme.com/2010/10/iconic-cover-girls/

http://www.vogue.com/voguepedia/Yves_Saint_Laurent_(Brand)


The effects of cpmpulsory uniform on identity

The effects of compulsory uniform on identity

4. The effects compulsory uniform has on a person’s identity

"http://www.warandgender.com/6_fig010.jpg"The beliefs of the feminist movement were a large inspiration across society and women’s authorisation. (Moon, 2011) discusses the need for equality within all humanity. “In addition, in the 1960s and early 1970s nursing was predominantly a woman’s occupation, and as many women began to move to occupations previously closed to them where they could find higher pay and more advancement potential, the pool of potential nurses decreased.” This indicates that with the incline in recruitment of nursing, the understanding that this occupation was one only applicable to women would prove to be unbeneficial to society due to the military’s constant need for nurses, an issue which could not be ignored. (Figure 16) further suggests women’s insignificance within this period.

""“No professional male nurses were featured, though two male medics were. Recruitment brochures likewise portrayed male nurses in rare instances, most often in brochures where they demonstrated the uniforms male nurses wore.” (Moon, 2011, p. 112) targets the consumers of uniform directly, with discussing that the representation of male gender would still be desirable but were clearly not the main aim of these promotional tools. In opposition, (Parker, 1993, p. 4) states “The men’s willingness to follow the nurse’s instructions illustrated their acceptance of her as an authority figure. The nurse’s uniform reinforced this image.” This analysing the confirmation that these uniforms worn are able to portray control, regardless of its wearer’s gender, although its reflection determines masculine shapes rather than ones related to females. A member of security within a hospital answered “Patients know who you are, authority and level of hierarchy” when asked ‘What benefits does wearing uniform have, if any?’ indicating that of recent, uniform is of bigger significance in regards to feeling secure and with gender being something which isn’t considered. (see Appendix 3). This allows the question that thoughts of self-doubt in women are able to be partially answered and in this being a factor supporting alteration of a person’s identity through the use of these apparels. In further support, 86 percent of the public answered “yes” to ‘Do you think that in people wearing uniform this allows them to change their identity whilst wearing it?’ demonstrating that the modification of identities could be an occurring factor.

4.1 In having self-doubt about ourselves, does wearing uniform help to hide this?

“Even before considering the specific tactics used in recruitment materials, one can see through the Army’s neglect to target male nurses that it wished to maintain the traditional tie between nursing, particularly war nursing, and femininity. In fact, of the twenty-eight different Army advertisements that appeared in nursing journals and magazines between 1963 and 1972, only one featured a male nurse student. Recruitment brochures likewise portrayed male nurses in rare instances, not often in brochures where they demanded the uniforms male nurses wore.” (Moon, 2011, p. 118)

""This suggests that the design of these uniforms is a huge attempt at directing common stereotypes about male nursing or its link between nursing and femininity through the use of these compulsory garments and the reasons why. It is an indication that self-confidence or over-confidence is able to be perceived, with true feelings being adapted. Its main aim is to target these types of job roles at the growth of males rather than a combination of the two through the angular cuts demonstrated on these garments with (Figure 17) indicating this suggestion.

""(Parker, 1993, p. 8) states that “The FNS uniform reinforced the nurse-midwife as sense of identity and purpose, and promoted a feeling of unity amongst the staff” proposing that personal identities within these occupations would be absent and suggesting that the effects these uniforms has on its wearer would be one of a modification. Also, (Parker, 1993, p. 10) “Although stained, the outfit shows little deterioration of the sturdy fabric of its construction. War shortages affected the availability of uniform cloth in the 1940s” further considering that the idea of alteration, at this time would be through its fabric and the quality available within this era. However, (Moon, 2011, p. 114) describes that “Delegates were debating a resolution that would have supported a draft and with no gender qualification specified in the resolution; the ANA proposal supported drafting both male and female nurses” associating gender issues surrounding recruitment within this period.

4.2 Why do people use dressing in uniform to create a hidden identity rather than embracing themselves as they are?

“Moreover, the need for nurses was a problem the ANC would have to deal with itself, for while “physicians, dentists, and other health personnel which are predominately male were subject to the draft for procurement… the nursing fields have traditionally been female and not subject to these procurement devices.” Female nurses were never drafted during the Vietnam era, although the Selective Service developed a plan to do so if called upon.” (Moon, 2011, p. 113)

“Army nursing also provided opportunities for intellectual development that would increase each nurse’s value to the larger medical team. She would be more than a nurse; she would be a dedicated professional, equipped in a particular specialization of nursing.” (Moon, 2011, p. 125) describing that the distribution of occupations heavily depended on the applicant’s gender additionally supported by (Parker, 1993, p. 12) stating “The sensible, military-styled uniform reinforces the nurse’s authority and reassured patients of receiving expert care. The dress unified staff working towards a common goal making them feel like a family and team. Wearing her uniform proudly, the properly attired nurse represented the high standards and ideals of the Frontier Nursing Service.” This indicating a sense of reliability towards each gender within both job roles separately and not as ones which could be mutual if desired.

4.3 How self-confidence can be seen as overly confident, or as equally self-confident to people

"http://www.history.com/minisites/wwii-in-hd/inside-wwii/assets/north-america/women-in-wwii/photo-gallery/women-in-wwii-07-getty-88995287.jpg"“Occupational dress must also be suitable for the worker, as well as suited to the activity. Because of the nature of their job, nurses needed a sensible uniform that conveyed the image of a self-assured, trained nurse. The uniform’s role in developing this image was as important as its practicality.” (Parker, 1993, p. 4) This stating that the professional and authorisation of these figures are thought of as desperately in need due to healthcare of people being of huge prominence and this able to be achieved through appropriate, yet traditional fabric with its potential constraints in mind. With the angular cuts used within both military and healthcare discipline, a more male-dominated uniform theoretically able to allow feelings and opinions to be hidden behind this as shown in (Figure 18). With uniform having the ability to provide instant protection as well as discipline for its wearer, its factors of value, symbolism and professionalism is able to give self-assurance and respect which asks the question “Will military life make me ‘militarized,’ less feminine?” (Moon, 2011, p. 132) and in assuming that these garments are of masculine cuts and fabrics as stated, this literalising women’s ability of being able to ‘hide behind this.’

""The superiority of these uniforms assists in expressing a correct presentation of the involvement of support given by both nurses and military occupations. Its preservation of public image restricting the use of their uniforms by outsiders would have been an occurrence in many services indicating the importance these apparels behold. (Moon, 2011, p. 138) states “By calling women to broad, humanitarian nursing during the Vietnam War, the ANC could essentially rise above political debates about the war and still uphold the traditional idea of service to country” (Moon, 2011, p. 138) additionally supporting that traditionalism bears no meaning, with the freedom of people impacting not only themselves but also the society, perusing this as an unselfish act of kindness. “You’re needed. You’ve heard the news. You know American soldiers are fighting in Vietnam. Could you face yourself and the oath you took when you became a nurse if any of them suffered needlessly because they weren’t enough nurses? Of course not. Fortunately, that won’t happen. Our country won’t let it happen. You won’t let it happen. No one who chooses a nursing career lacks a sense of duty… or compassion.” This suggesting that although conflict and discomfort would occur, this determination specifies that the importance of a high number of nurses would be required, and there would be no room for discrimination if this sector was going to perform, and thrive.

"http://www.historygrandrapids.org/imgs/1588/full/Joy_in_field_hospital-19.jpg"(Parker, 1993, pp. 6–7) demonstrates the support to the soldiers through the act of nursing due to the use of these uniforms and not to them as personalities stating that “The uniform’s represented a satisfaction in her accomplishments. Of course, it did not mean all nurses wore their uniform correctly. Nurse-midwife Nancy O’Driscoll when asked the reason she carried, but never wore, her service cap, replied: “Oh…I think the world of my fine cap, I just don’t want it on my head.”

""“Recruitment of Army nurses was nothing new for wartime, but social and gender changes in the 1960s and early 1970s posed new considerations in nurse recruitment for Vietnam” stated by (Moon, 2011, p. 120). Further supporting this statement “This connection between the wounded male solider and the female nurse did more than suggest nursing as a role for women; it also suggested that female nurses provided important benefits to the soldiers in addition to medical care, benefits that male nurses could not provide.” (Moon, 2011, pp. 139–140). This demonstrating that the development of uniform is able to create advances within these industries, in using gender to explore how powerful these individuals are with a modification through the cut of these garments, (Figure 19) further supporting this.

“Meyer’s garments were constructed of “genuine whipcord, with genuine buckskin reinforcements and made to fit a woman.” (Parker, 1993, p. 7) indicates that although usually constructed with strong influences of masculine aesthetics, these particular garments adopted a more feminine approach, through the eclectic use of its cloth central to design symbolizing women. This supported by the 86 percent of public who answered “yes” to ‘Do you think that in people wearing uniform this allows them to change their identity whilst wearing it?’ (see Appendix 1).

“Because the Army technically forbade women to serve in combat areas, it wanted male nurses for particular locations and assignments such as forward combat medical units, hospitals or surgical units in hostile areas, hospitals where hostile action was anticipated, and med-evac helicopters that transported the wounded from the field. Other than these specific assignments, the ANC had “no numerical procurement objective for male nurses,” and refused to make gender-specific assignments. Males comprised a significantly larger proportion of military than of civilian nurses overall; in 1966, males comprised less than 1 percent of American nurses but approximately 20 percent of Army nurses. This high percentage of male nurses in the military implies that a significantly greater proportion of male than female nurses viewed military nursing as a legitimate career.” (Moon, 2011, pp. 118)

“Colonel Harper stated that a male nurse who served in the ANC selected the profession as “a means by which he supports himself and ultimately his family—and which he will not change by virtue of marriage or raising a family.” She emphasized that this trend was different from female nurses, who often were “not looking for a career of 20 or 30 years in the Army, or in the field of nursing. They look at it purely from the point of the immediacy…gaining an education and a capability for an interim role for the most worthy profession of marriage.” (Moon, 2011, pp. 118–119)

"http://library.uncg.edu/dp/wv/biggie/7/WV002.7.005.jpg""""http://olive-drab.com/images/uniforms_usmc_women_ww2_full.jpg"The recruitment materials would have been designed to appeal to males, although this wouldn’t have been taken into account, rather for reasons of equality and discrimination with its main concern being to attract female nurses. “An Army Nurse had added responsibility to help her meet the added challenge. She is a leader and supervisor of valuable team members.” While the text in itself emphasizes a progressive definition of nursing that imparts responsibility and leadership to the nurse, placing the text directly beside a picture of a uniform links that responsibility and leadership to the uniform. Any kind of equality that the nurses might have found as officers was attributed to their uniform and not to them as individuals.” (Moon, 2011, p. 137) arguing that these traditional feminine roles are made up of accomplishment, social recognition and personal satisfaction, things that male species could not take away even after feminism’s fight for equality with (Figure 20) supportive of this.

""Social debates concerning gender roles have been able to continue the development of nursing and the ways in which women nurses are depicted with the promise of emotional and physical challenges to provide a good performance. (Moon, 2011, p. 129) states that “Army nurses could then “concentrate on professional duties only,” “work with your patients, not your pencils” demonstrating that these specialized skills which nurses obtained and have built on are of greater significance than gender preference, (Figure 21).

With the responsibilities and honour of an Army officer as well as a nurse, traditionally feminine roles are able to define descriptions of gender roles within both the developed nursing and military profession. Community health, maternal and child health, operating room nursing, anaesthesiology, military nursing practice and medical-surgical nursing are all elements within nursing are all examples of its specific areas demanded of them. (Moon, 2011, p. 125) says that “These advertisements asserted that, because the demands of Army nursing were more challenging and rewarding than the “demands” of working in the quiet and controlled wards of civilian hospitals, Army nurses were the most skilful and dedicated nurses in the profession, a tantalizing claim to a nurse who wanted to rise above the stereotypical image of nurses as handmaidens to doctors” which suggests that, unlike the physical sex of a person, gender is a way of constructing certain attributes welcoming and valuing this, without implying natural femininity even after furthering training and commitment to the job role.

“Being an “Officer” and a “Nurse” was shown as a progressive move for a woman, even one who joined the traditionally masculine military. Being an “Officer” was a way to secure equal status with men, while being a “Nurse” promised career advancement and respect.” (Moon, 2011, p. 123) This defining that the resourcefulness of women within this industry is a possibility with involving leadership skills, respect and equality as a way of corroborating this. (Moon, 2011, p. 127) further suggests the unimportance of gender within these occupations through stating that “Thus, because the Army truly valued nurses, it made them officers and placed them on the same level as males regardless of traditional gender and healthcare hierarchies. America’s most traditionally masculine organization and employer portrayed itself as on the cutting edge of feminism’s fight for equal job opportunities, offering women a sure way of being the type of professionals they wanted to be.” This proving that a women’s ability to assert herself in participating equally in all areas of society continued further than this capability, earning her as much responsibility for personal and national success as men.


Fashion and art in the eighteenth century

Fashion and art in the eighteenth century

Fashion Art in the 18th century
 

 

 

*Table of Contact:

- introduction ……………………………………….(1)

- body ……………………………………………..(2-7)

- conclusion …………………………………………(8)

- references ………………………………………….(8)

Introduction:

The 18th century saw the birth of fashion as we know it today; international, media driven, corporate, seasonal, and constantly changing. Then, as now, fashion was a major industry, centered in Paris but drawing clients, materials, and inspiration from all corners of the globe. The invention of the fashion magazine during this period ensured that new styles had a wide and immediate impact. Mass production and ready-to-wear clothing were being pioneered on a small scale, though the technology necessary to realize their full potential did not yet exist. It was an experimental, transitional period between the staggeringly luxurious fashions of Louis XIV’s ancient regime and the diversity, disposability, and accessibility of fashion in the modern age.

Body:

In previous centuries, governments regulated dress according to the wearer’s social status, through sumptuary laws. From the early 18th century, these laws never very effective-ceased to be regularly renewed. For the first time, people of all classes were permitted to wear fashionable, luxurious dress, provided that they could afford it. “Clothes were no longer an accurate indicator of class or rank.” The introduction of innovative technologies and textiles in this period made never-worn clothing more affordable than in the past. Previously, only the very wealthy bought new clothing, and almost everyone else settled for used garments. As these traditional social, legal, and economic barriers disintegrated, fashion’s influence spread from the court and aristocracy to the middle and lower social strata. Fashion was still driven by the elite, but it was produced-and, increasingly, imitated-at all levels of society.

Before the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century, when mechanization transformed the fashion industry, clothing was a major financial investment; fashionable clothing, which had an unnaturally short life span, was an extraordinary luxury. Although labor was cheap in the 18th century, fabric was expensive. The cost of a garment lay almost entirely in the cloth and trimmings, and labor made up a fraction of the price. Trimmings were often even more expensive than the fabric onto which they were sewn. Lace, for example, was handmade and could cost as much as gems; like jewellery, it would be passed down from generation to generation. Metallic trimmings, such as gold or silver braid, contained real precious metals, and they were sold by weight rather than length. Silk, wool, and linen were the basic textile fibers, though cotton grew in importance later in the century. Cheap, manufactured imitations of these textiles did not exist; however, those who could not afford high-quality fabrics could

wear lesser-quality fabrics or used fabrics. Rough/fine and plain/complex fabrics corresponded to social rank.

Most of the clothing worn in the 18th century was bought second-hand, if not third-or fourth-hand. Clothing was so valuable that it was frequently stolen. Fashionable clothing had a finite life span; after clothing went out of fashion, it was given to a servant or sold to a second-hand clothes dealer, who might alter or update the garment. This cycle of redistribution would continue until the garment was not just outmoded but threadbare. Even the wealthy frequently had garments refurbished, remodelled, or otherwise updated, rather than buying everything new. New clothing was the exception, not the rule. However, farmers and labourers had access to fashionable, high-quality clothing through the used clothing market. The same types of garments-and frequently the very same garments-were worn across the social spectrum.

Both sexes wore a layer of white linen next to their skin, which protected the expensive outer garments of wool or silk from perspiration and protected the body from dirt and vermin. Cleanliness was determined by the state of one’s linen-visible at the collar, cuffs and hem-rather than one’s outer garments or body. Men wore T-shaped linen shirts with long tails, which they tucked between their legs; women wore long linen chemises or shifts and additional layers of underskirts. Although some men wore underpants, it was not a common practice. Women did not wear underpants at all; ironically, they were considered immoral, as bifurcated garments were traditionally reserved for men. It was considered improper for a woman to show her legs, beyond the tip of her foot. Likewise, women kept their elbows covered, and wore low-cut gowns only at night or on the most formal occasions. By the end of the century, however, all these rules would be obsolete.

Fashion and Revolution (1780 – 1789)

The French Revolution marked a turning point in fashion technology history. But long before 1789, European fashion embraced the principles of liberty and equality, taking its cues from rural and sporting dress rather than from royals and celebrities. The American Revolution of 1776 filled Paris with hairstyles and gowns.Hoops, wings, and hair powder virtually disappeared from fashionable circles; women’s towering hairstyles relaxed into soft, rounded clouds of curls. Rather than matched three – piece suits, men began to wear jackets, waistcoats and breeches of contrasting color and fabrics. Men’s coat collars grew higher, and waistcoats grew shorter.They ended at the waist, and were almost always white, to show off elaborate, sometimes whimsical, embroidery. Only at the courts of Europe did formal styles persist, frozen in time by strict etiquette.

While the French set the standard of elegance for all of Europe, the English perfected what we now call sportswear. The English taste for the outdoors and physical activity produces a distinctive wardrobe of functional, comfortable garments. Many of these garments originated as rural dress, including straw hats, aprons, gaiters, and frock coats. Hats, boots, and jackets based on jockey dress (which looks very similar today) were also popular. In England, of course, jackets were only worn while actually on horseback; in France, they were worn indoors, as high fashion, to the horror of English visitors. These casual fashions – worn in England by both the landed gentry and the peasants who worked their estates – defined the French tradition of formality and luxury. Nevertheless, they found favour in the most elite circles in Europe.French fashion often distorted the natural shape of the body; English fashions accentuated it. In France, gorgeous surface embellishment masked haphazard tailored; English garments were characterized by their flawless cut and construction,

unspoiled by superfluous ornament. Long, narrow sleeves and closely fitted bodies and coats created an elegant, distinctly English line while allowing efficient movement.

Children’s dress, in the late 18th century, frocks became less fitted around the torso and hairstyles more natural. Girls continued to wear frocks until their teen years instead of adopting adult-style gowns. Instead of breeches, boys began to wear the so called skeleton suit, a transitional style between the frock and adult clothing, consisting of a shirt – made like an adult man’s shirt but with an open, ruffled collar – worn with a jacket and long trousers that buttoned together to form a one-piece garment. The already controversial practice of swaddling infants in bands of cloth virtually disappeared between 1760 and 1780; instead, enlightened mothers’ dresses their babies in loose shirt and caps.

The French revolution of 1789 produced not just a new set of garments but also a more relaxed definition of elegance. The most obvious manifestation of this phenomenon was the term sans-culottes, which described manual laborers& urban poor, who generally wore utilitarian long trousers rather than the knee-length breeches favoured by aristocrats and the bourgeoisie, paired with short jackets called carmagnoles. On both side of the political divide, sans-culottes became shorthand for revolutionaries. Along with breeches, the sans-culottes rejected lace, embroidery, diamonds, rough, silk, swords, shoe buckles, hair powder, and non-patriotic jewellery. Fashion was no longer in fashion in France, and this change had a ripple effect throughout Europe. Fashions based on military dress and the clinging, austere robes of the ancient Greeks replaced the elegant disorder of the rococo; flowing flowered silks gave way to patriotic strips and severe tailoring.

Conclusion:

•In conclusion we learnt the history of fashion and how it began and how it did developed , it was a fantastic story that how fashion evolved , and how it was monopolized only for wealthy, and that the dress was just a symbol of class and but with the passage of the time the lifestyle being different , no longer dress monopolized the wealthy and no longer also a symbol of class, also in my opinion that the dress is also symbolizes the personality of each person living within the limits of this world, and in the end I wanted to give advice for everyone “you have to wear what you like not what people like”


History of the fur trade

History of the fur trade

2.1 History of the Fur Trade

The fur trade has been in existence for centuries in western countries like America, Canada, UK and other European countries. The Great Lakes in Canada opened its ports for fur traders in the 17th century, participated in by indigenous people who accepted goods such as firearms and liquor, iron axes, knives, hatchets, fish hooks, trade cloths, wool blankets, linen shirts, brass kettles, jewelry, glass beads, gunpowder, alcoholic drinks, as well illnesses which were previously alien to them in exchange for fur (Native American Encyclopedia, 2014). This extended to the native cultures in Siberia as Russian traders discovered the fur trade in the 18th century (Fur Trade, 2013).

The Hudson’s Bay Company was the greatest British fur trading company based in Montreal, Canada. It was dominated by French and Scottish traders. It merged with the North West Company in 1821 after being bitter rivals before that. In the United States, its counterpart company was John Jacob Astor’s American Fur Company. In 1816, British traders were not allowed to enter the United States unless they become US Citizens (Fur Trade, 2013).

The beaver hat was the most saleable item of the American fur trade, however, as fashion evolved, American fur trade slowly declined. This was because of the advancement of settlement with the trade in wild furs getting more popular than fur of farm animals. The stock of beaver and other amimals was also depleted, ending the fur trade in the 1840’s in the United States and Canada. Traders exploited their geographic knowledge of the sources of fur and the knowledge learned from Native Americans in the creation of fur for trading (Fur Trade, 2013) .

Apart from hats, fur was also used for trimmings for dresses, hats, muffs and collars and eventually, full fur coats became fashion items in the late 19th century (Ewing, 1981). It was at that time when silver foxes and nutria were bred by farmers to revive the glory days of the bountiful fur trade before animals were depleted.

By the mid-1940’s mink farming began to be known as a lucrative business (Skov, 2005). Other animal fur skins were also used such as “weasel, squirrel, racoon, sable, marten, fisher, seal, cat, dog, chinchilla, rabbit and several types of lamb, including karakul. Skins from big cats such as leopard and ocelot were also used” (Skov, 2005, p. 20).

The world centre of the fur trade moved to London in the 1930’s. Having organized “Empire Fur Week” since 1934, the London Fur Trade Association fostered the proliferation of trade journals dedicated to furriery. It also signalled the skinning of several hundreds of thousands of fox, ermine, beaver and mink pelts. Experimental furriery included the skinning of animals which were unlikely to be considered fur donors – badger, skunk, wolf, polecat, squirrel, musk ox, monkey, nutria, raccoon, wombat, wallaby and even hamsters and house cats (Dyhouse, 2011).

By the mid 1970s the International Fur Trade Federation (IFTF) endorsed the CITES agreement banning the use of endangered animals as a responsible action for the preservation of natural resources (Skov, 2005).

2.2 Representations of Fur in History

The fur trade that began in North America became a source of business and wealth to Western Europe. Native Americans who have participated in the trade were suddenly overwhelmed with new forms of exchange such as guns, kettles, tools, new foods and luxury items (Emberley, 1996).

However, Innis (1970) has recognized the centrality of the fur trade in the development of Canada as a nation-state. It has been understood as influential in addressing political and economic interests.

Not only does it bring in money as a commodity which is in demand but it has also become a sign of symbolic power (Emberley, 1996).

2.2.1 Function

Fur coats came into existence originally to protect the wearer from the bitter cold. Clarke (1981) narrated that cold weather calls for clothing with both leather and fur. The leather garments were worn next to the skin followed by a layer of fur cover. Extreme coldness may necessitate two layers of fur, with the first layer turned hair side in, forming air pockets that provide insulation and protection from the dampness of perspiration. The second layer had its fur turn outwards as a shield against the coldest weather.

2.2.2 Status

In medieval Europe, there was a legislation regulating the wearing of fur among the nobility, the clergy and peasantry to distinguish their class affiliation and social rank (Emberley, 1996). Decorative furs such as ermine were sewn into heraldic crests and coats of arms of soldiers while peasants and labourers wore leather apparel and occasionally, fur, but only as hats and nothing more. The more exotic and extravagant amounts of fur were reserved for the upper classes to indicate their dignity and nobility.

Prostitutes were not allowed to wear fur and if they must, due to necessity and comfort from the cold, should wear them inside out. This was also meant to symbolize her inverse position as a ‘respectable woman’ and hence, set her apart from those considered respectable (Baldwin, 1926).

2.2.3 Power

Fur has also been used to symbolize power and represent political affiliation. The beaver hat was used to distinguish Puritans and Cavaliers in seventeenth century England and Charles II gave Hudson’s Bay the monopoly for the North American fur trade in 1670. In more modern times, ex-President Nixon of the United States referred to the use of fur to distinguish honourable and dishonourable practices in saying his wife may not have a mink coat but she has a respectable Republican cloth coat, but she would look good in anything (Parmet, 1990). His sarcasm was pointed against his political opponents to connote sexual propriety as well as political propriety, and Nixon was able to exploit the representation of fur at that time, at the height of controversy for fur-trapping by First Nations, protests of animal rights activists against fur use and the globalization of the fur trade (Emberley, 1996).

2.2.4 Sexual Fetishism

Fur’s innate softness elicits sensuality. The sexual fetishism attributed to fur brings about a new mode of gendered dissimulation associated to “power, eroticism and exchange of women” (Emberley, 1996, p. 440). In an image of a woman wearing fur, it is her body that mediates the symbolic exchange. It is also the sensuality she projects while wearing the fur that invests sexual fetishism in the object, giving it more value and meaning to the fur, while inscribing her as a figure of erotic power.

Because the fur coat may represent wealth and prestige as well as erotic power for women, people who desire such can develop a strong desire to possess fur, as they have deciphered the code that it is one ammunition of bourgeois women of power over men (Emberley, 1996).

2.2.5 Fashion

Women’s obsession for fur was further deepened with watching movie stars flaunting various kinds of fur to epitomize glamour in the 1920’s and 1930’s. Actresses on the silver screen wore coats with high fur collars or indulged in the finest wraps and full length fox and sable coats. Movie plots centered on women rising from poverty to live more empowered lives, as in the movie Easy Living, a 1937 film about a woman named Mary Smith chancing upon an expensive new sable coat and thereafter has transformed her life into a fairy tale story. Fur has become ingrained in fashion that in the 1920’s, two out of three women in England may be found wearing fur coats or have fur trimmings of some kind in their clothes (Dyhouse, 2011).

2.3 Fur Activism Movement

The political and libidinal economies of fur have come together in startling ways in the contemporary moment. Constitutive to the agenda of the animal-rights movement is resistance to fulfilling the fetishistic desires of a ruling social and economic class, whose pleasure derives from the slaughter of animals. Implicitly, the human/animal opposition, which structures both criticism and support for animal-rights activism, contributes to a new kind of fetishism, the spectacle fetishism of the mass media and its images of sadistic violence and cruelty to animals.

In the early twentieth century the fur trade declined drastically and fur became, in the Western economic context, a marginal commodity which served to redouble its status as a luxury commodity: as certain fur-bearing animals became rare and extinct, so too the fur coat itself became a rare and reified commodity. Meanwhile, in other worlds, fur retains its economic value for aboriginal people and its symbolic value increases as it becomes a vital support for modern aboriginal cultures. ‘For today’s fashion, we’d rather dance with wolves than skin them’ recalls a residue of colonial relations layered by current ecological correctness and the spectacle fetishism of cruelty to animals at the hands of the bourgeois female consumer. I would argue that we can red in this excess of significations a postcolonial allegory of the history of imperialism. And further, that the history of fur in its various value-laden contexts constitutes a treasure house of signs from which to trace the gender and colonial character of early European expansion.

2.4 Faux vs. Real Fur

In September, 1992, the New York Times Magazine featured a fashion spread entitled ‘Furs in Disguise’. Fur fashions, affected by the fashion trends of the 1980s towards fake fur were ‘disguised’ through dyeing and cutting techniques in order to resemble their artificial counterparts. This disguise also had the added feature of masking the use of real fur and further abstracting the product from its association with the referent, the fur-bearing animal. This fashion layout represents a strategic response to conflicting symbolic and material interests.

‘Furs in Disguise’ , an allegory of the simulated economic and libidinal investments of fur in our postmodern times, dramatizes the ideological operation of misrecognition essential to the commodity and exual fetishisms of an object that is made to be known, like the prostitute’s identity, rather than to figure in the process of knowledge.

2.5 Fur Fashion

The fall of fur in the 1980s was instigated by animal rights activists led by the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA). They made a huge impact on their protests against the manufacture, marketing and consumption of fur at the expense of the animals found to be skinned cruelly (Dyhouse, 2011). However, after more than a decade, fur has resurfaced in fashion markets. Initially, it reappeared in trimmings on jackets and sweaters or in accessories such as bags, belts and shoes, until it re-emerged as a full length coat. Skov (2005) reports the shift from short-haired hides of cows, ponies and seals popularized in the late 1990s to long hairs again. In 2004, silver fox and lynx were on parade on the Italian catwalk.

Contemporary fashion has expanded the design of fur from coats with conservative cuts to new fur apparel cut closer to the body. New furs were cut, shaped and dyed in various ways to correspond to the trends. Skov (2005) compared old and new fur fashion as follows:

“Whereas the weight of the old fur coat signified the practical purpose of

keeping its owner warm as well as her middle-class solidity, new fur is light;

with a minimal number of seams, and without lining or interface, a mink coat

now weighs less than 2 kilos. While core consumers used to be women over

50, women in their thirties are now buying fur. At the same time, fur is no

longer sold exclusively in specialized retail outlets but through the boutiques

of name designers and exclusive brands” (p. 12)

2.6 Marketing Fur

2.7 Women’s Sense of Self

Fredrickson & Roberts’ (1997) Objectification theory explains how a woman internalizes how others view her to be her primary view of her physical self. Such a view leads her to habitually monitor her body, how she dresses and fixes herself to look the way she does. If she does not come close to the high standards by which she measures her worth, it increases her shame and anxiety, failure to reach motivational peak states and diminishes her awareness of her internal bodily states. This means she may not be conscious that in the pursuit of looking good, she may be starving her body of the nutrients it needs to survive. Vulnerable to judgment of society, women vigilantly monitor themselves with the knowledge that being positively viewed by others means more opportunities. Studies have shown that how a woman’s body appears to others can determine her life experiences (Frederickson & Roberts, 1997). Physical attractiveness seem to matter more to females than to males that is why they dominate the scene in fashion and beauty.

2.8 Women and Fur

Fur has been associated with glamour, fashion, comfort and success. Women in post-war Britain desired to possess fur coats, preferably mink, as it is a sign of luxury and a defining quality of femininity reflective of one’s sexuality (Dyhouse, 2011). Emberley (1996) noted that the twentieth century saw women wearing fur as a fashion commodity to show off the “twin signs of wealth and social prestige” (p. 438). She also contended that “European bourgeois women actively participate in achieving their status through the accumulation of the symbolic capital invested in ‘femininity’” (p. 438).

This investment in her femininity with cultural capital earns a woman a social differentiation from other women, and a social prestige of the subjective value of a woman eligible as an object of

exchange among the wealthy class (Emberley, 1996). Having access to the bourgeois class comes with certain privileges.

In Leopold von Scher-Masoch’s Venus in Furs (1989), fur figures as a central prop in a masochistic drama of willed masculine disempowerment and the creation of a correlative negativity, the feminized agent of power and domination:

I went on avidly reading tales of the most fearful cruelty; I gazed with particular relish at paintings and engravings depicting such practices, and I noticed that in every scene furs were the attribute of the torturer. The most bloodthirsty tyrants that ever sat upon a throne, and murderous inquisitors who had heretics persecuted and burned, and all the women whom the great book of history has placed under the sign of beauty, lust and violence: Libussa, Lucretia Borgia, Agnes of Hungary, Queen margot, Isabeau, the Sultana Roxelana and the Russian Tsarinas of the last century, all wore fur garments and ermine robes (179-80).

Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative or the interpretivists believe that the world is a social place and is created by the shared understanding of situations. (Roberts – Holmes, 2005). The qualitative researcher tends to use strategies such as narratives, case studies or phenomenologies, and employs methods such as observation and open-ended interviewing. Qualitative approach focuses on a single concept, and tries to bring personal values and views into the enquiry. In collaboration with participants, the researcher interprets the data in order to create an agenda for change or reform. (Cresswell, 2003).

Since this study shall undertake research on women’s insights about the use of fur as an apparel, it will be a qualitative method of enquiry during which personal opinions will be sought so that meaning and understanding could be derived in a holistic, natural framework. Peat (2002) states the strengths of a qualitative study as being able to obtain information from the perspective of the participant. This can increase how humans understand a concept or phenomenon. However, there can be numerous limitations, for instance the fact that it cannot test a hypothesis. Also there can also be more ethical issues related to qualitative studies, due to the fact that the participants are giving personal opinions about the topic being studied or investigated.

3.2 Research Methods Used

3.2.1 Questionnaires

Campbell, McNamara, and Gilroy (2004) described questionnaires as “a very versatile data-gathering method; they are cheap, easy to administer, whether it be to three people or 300, and can be used to gather a great variety of data of both quantitative and qualitative nature” (p. 146). Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2000) also praised the use of questionnaires for their efficiency. Surveys and questionnaires allow the researcher to collect a significant amount of information in one attempt, rather than conducting interviews over a period of weeks. Gillham (2000) wrote that questionnaires make efficient use of the respondent’s time, because the survey participant can complete the questionnaire at a time that is suitable, and the survey process does not require the researcher and respondent to match free periods of time to conduct the research. However, a disadvantage of using questionnaires is that the only data collected are variety of tick boxes and brief responses, which means the data tends to have more breadth than depth (Watzlawick et al., 1967; Oppenheim, 1992). This outcome results from the lack of an interviewer to prompt for further information or more detail in the answers. The questionnaire or survey cannot interpret questions for participants who may be unclear about what is being asked, so each participant has to decipher what they are being asked independently. Participants may resort to their own subjective understanding of the questions (Oppenheim, 1992).

Interviews and questionnaires provide a method of directly provoking a response by asking specific questions of research interest. There are a range of different types of interview methods; such as journalistic, employment and therapeutic (Drever. E, 1995) Robson (2002) draws attention to the three different styles of interview; fully structured; semi-structured and unstructured. In a fully structured interview, the interviewer has predetermined questions and uses them in a pre-set order. The semi-structured interview uses predetermined questions where the order can be modified or adapted as necessary. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has a general area of interest, yet allows conversation to develop freely.

Interviews serve the purpose of enabling participants to be able to discuss their interpretations of a concept, as well as giving participants the opportunity to express their own point of view with regard to certain situations. (Cohen et al, 2000). The interview method involves questioning or a discussion of issues with one or more people. It is useful to collect data which may not be accessible through observation or questionnaires. (Blaxter et al, 2006).
2.Analysis of Data

The questionnaires shall be analyzed qualitatively with the backdrop of the information taken from the literature review. Verbatim transcripts of the focus group interview shall also be be analyzed qualitatively. Bowen’s (2005) analysis of interview transcripts identified patterns in the data by means of thematic codes. This means there will be themes in the interview data that may surface. Patton (1980) explains “Inductive analysis means that the patterns, themes, and categories of analysis come from the data; they emerge out of the data rather than being imposed on them prior to data collection and analysis” (p. 306). Bowen’s analysis of data entailed studying the patterns that emerge, making logical associations with the interview questions and reference to the review of literature. He details the process of deriving his research findings as thus: “At successive stages, themes moved from a low level of abstraction to become major, overarching themes rooted in the concrete evidence provided by the data. These emerging themes together with a substantive-formal theory of ‘development-focused collaboration’ became the major findings of the study” (p.306)


Fashion from the sixteenth to nineteenth

Fashion from the sixteenth to nineteenth century

Fashion, which was a norm only used to describe upper class people between 13th Century and 16th Century, was dominated by court and aristocracy. At the beginning of 17th Century, which is also known as the end of European Renaissance, clothing represented the social standing of the wearer. The dressing code could be used to distinguish classes. It is believed that during the Renaissance, fashion was experiencing a lot of transformation in terms of colour, clothes and accessories (Jones 2000). Some people argued that Renaissance is the turning point of fashion since it reflected changes in self-esteem, erotic appeal or social advancement (Rublack 2011). In the meantime, lower class started to acquire status by adopting the clothing styles of the upper class, fashion became widely interested. Therefore, it is important to understand the fashion development since 17th Century. This paper first discusses the fashion plate, which is considered to be the first fashion magazine and early form of fashion. Secondly, it discusses the development of printing technology and its effects on fashion dissemination. Then it illustrates modern fashion disseminations including Internet, television and other social media and their influences.

Fashion plate is defined as illustrations of clothing fashion or style, originated as early as 16th Century (Nevinson 1967). The original fashion plate was in a form of either drawing or engraving of clothes, accessories and shoes on metal plates (Holland 1955). Initially, it was used in portraiture of nobility and aristocracy (Nevinson 1967). Loyal families drew portraits and clothes on the fashion plates and sent them away to other loyal families as display of marriageable members (Nevinson 1967). With the development of fashion plate and fashion, at the beginning of 17th Century, fashion plate becomes the most effective way to promote fashion workshops in Europe (Steele 2005). People distributed fashion plate to convey fashionable information around Europe. Shop owners sent fashion plates by messengers to potential clients while friends and relatives sent each other fashion plate for comparisons and communications. Fashion plate is also regarded as the earliest form of fashion magazine since the popularity of fashion plates led some publishers to use fashion plates as their publications materials to demonstrate trends and clothes instead of using plain text (Holland, 1955).

However, fashion plate did not occur at a systematic level until 18th Century when weekly publications such as the Lady’s Magazine, La Belle Assemblee, and Les Modes Parisiennes became widespread and publications became massive. At the beginning, fashion plates only depicted fashion information and predicted fashion to those who could afford. With the development of economy and technology, fashion plates soon became popular even within lower class people. Although fashion plates were pricy, people showed strong interest in them. It was the mainstream medium of fashion dissemination until the early 20th Century when printing became dominant. Fashion plate remained on fashion stage for another significant period of time until late 20th Century when other social media such as television and Internet became popular. Today it is regarded as fine art collection and most of them have the value of research study.

Another development of fashion dissemination is the invention of printing. Fashion information was delivered by printed paper ever since the invention of printing press. However, formal publication started only in 17th Century when the French publication Mercure de France was published. Mercure de France was a significant development since it was considered the first gazette and literary magazine (DeJean 2005). It played an important role in the dissemination of fashion news, fashion stories, and reviews of the latest fashion. But due to relatively slow improvement in fashion itself, weekly publication seems to be too fast and unnecessary. Fashion plates, which could be preserved over a significant time and transported multiple times, were easier to accepted by the social perception (Nevinson 1967).

The real improvement in print production started in the nineteenth century when steam power press became available. The magazine Godey’s Lady’s Book quickly became a large circulation in the country (Nevinson 1967). Massive fashion production by printing press flourished the second time after the transition to rolled paper, which significantly improve the paper feeding speed and printing speed. The invention of lithography, which is regarded as another important improvement, enabled artists and designers to print their drawings and illustration any smooth surface. Since lithograph can print on all surfaces, fashion plates started to die off from the market simply because it was too pricy for most of the people. For textile and clothing fashion, under the impulse of evolution in printing technology, the printing became an industrial process which significantly decreased the price of textile and clothes. In contemporary fashion, variety of prints could be identified. It became the trademark of a diversity of designers such as handbags and clothes. The printing technology started with simple printing press, has experience uncountable developments, today, it is still the mainstream platform of fashion dissemination.

But the biggest step forward happened when half tone printing technology was invented. The invention of half tone printing allowed people printed photographs together with text without affecting their quality. This new technology gave birth of the modern fashion magazine. In the 1820s, the first photography was developed (Hirsch 2000). Fashion photography appeared first time in a French magazine. In 1909, Vogue magazine was took over by Condé Nast, which contributed significantly to the era of fashion photography (Angeletti 2012). In 1911, photographer Edward Steichen promote fashion as fine art by the collection of photography (Niven 1997). Paris was the centre of the fashion photography at that time. Fashion photograph has generated some of the most influential materials. Although fashion was developing slowly during World War I and World War II, there continuous to be growing numbers of women increased in fashion information. Magazines and newspapers, which contained a lot of photographs, began to cater to the lower classes in cheaper, specialise and accessible manners. By the 1960s, fashion magazines became more specialised while photography became the ideal medium for recording and disseminating the fashion information.

Changes in the fashion dissemination in the 20th century were facilitated by new methods and approaches, mainly because of the evolution in technologies. More people were seeking more convenient ways to follow the trend. These new mediums such as Internet and TV created new access to fashion information and changed the ways people create fashions.

Film, as another mainstream presentation of fashion, became popular during the Great Depression (Barthes 2010). However, due to the limitation of technology, film did not improve a lot until late 20th Century. The fashion elements in film include clothes, make-ups, accessories, bags, and even cars. While films are representing themes in virtual world, most of the elements can be used to predict fashions once a particular film becomes popular (McNeil 2009). In the late 20th century movie stars began to establish their role as the fashion elite by stapling fashion design labels in their daily life. For instance, Audrey Hepburn fashion icons include fitted pants, oversized sunglasses and little black dress affected women wear still today. Another example is the car collections in James Bond’s movie series had lead car collection fashion over decades. Victoria Beckham, who had transformed herself from singer to fashion designer and businesswoman, is leading the women fashion in different fields.

Another important fashion dissemination tool, television, began to compete with film as a medium of fashion from the mid-20th Century (McNeil 2009). The advent of the video clips had introduced another approach for fashion. Since film is much longer than video clip or music video clip, it is hard for people to find a particular piece of information throughout the whole film, and it is obviously impossible to repeat the film over and over again, TV has its own advantages than film. Commercials and advertisement can be broadcasted on TV repeatedly with a reasonable cost.

With the invention of cable and digital networks, today traditional media have been assigned with different meanings. The improvement of Internet provided increasing amounts of information to people. Internet TV could reach all levels of society and more fashion information than conventional way. A variety of formats including news, magazines and other forms of fashion dissemination are transforming into digital way. The social networking has enabled a faster fashion diffuseness. Celebrities, fashion designers and other fashion related parties started using social media as their primary dissemination tool. With the impacts of new technology, fashion is experiencing faster evolution than ever.

In conclusion, the development of fashion between 17th Century and 19th Century was slow due to the limitation of technology. Fashion plate was the mainstream dissemination tool from 17th to 19th century. With the industry revolution, fashion dissemination had extended magazines and newspaper. The development of technology had empowered fashion dissemination a cheaper and convenient approach. However, it was until the invention of film and photography could fashion become widely spread. Throughout the 20th century, the social media’s role in the fashion dissemination process has become more and more important. The concept and understanding of fashion became integrated with digital technology.

Reference

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Barthes, R. 2010, The fashion system, Vintage Classic, London.

 

DeJean, J. E. 2005, The essence of style : how the French invented high fashion, fine food, chic cafés, style, sophistication, and glamour, Free Press, New York.

 

Hirsch, R. 2000, Seizing the light : a history of photography, McGraw-Hill, Boston.

 

Holland, V. B. 1955, Hand coloured fashion plates, 1770 to 1899, Batsford, London.

 

Jones, A. R. S. P. 2000, Renaissance clothing and the materials of memory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge [England]; New York.

 

McNeil, P. K. V. C. C. 2009, Fashion in fiction : text and clothing in literature, film, and television, Berg, Oxford, UK; New York.

 

Nevinson, J. L. 1967, Origin and early history of the fashion plate, Smithsonian Press, Washington, D.C.

 

Niven, P. 1997, Steichen : a biography, Clarkson Potter, New York.

 

Rublack, U. 2011, "Renaissance fashion: The birth of power dressing", History Today, vol. 61, no.1.

 

Steele, V. 2005, Encyclopedia of clothing and fashion, Charles Scribner's Sons, Farmington Hills, MI.